Lifelong Learning as a Global Framework: Navigating Future Determinants and Contextual Realities in Southeast Asia

 

By Suwithida Charungkaittikul (HOF 2025)

As the International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame (IACEHOF) celebrates its milestone 30th anniversary, it offers a profound moment to pause and reflect on the transformative power of our field. Being inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2025 was not just a deeply humbling personal honor; it served as a powerful validation of the collective efforts to elevate adult education and lifelong learning across Thailand and the broader Southeast Asian region.

In contemporary educational discourse, Lifelong Learning (LLL) has successfully transitioned from a specialized educational sub-sector into a definitive global framework for sustainable development. It is widely recognized as the foundational architecture for navigating an increasingly volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) world. However, an enduring tension remains at the heart of comparative education: How does a sweeping, macro-level global framework translate into localized micro-practice in highly unequal regions such as Southeast Asia?

To answer this, we must look beyond standardized global timelines and instead critically examine the future determinants—the structural, technological, and socio-demographic conditions—that will inevitably reshape our societies. Concurrently, we must confront the profound diversity in how lifelong learning is understood, valued, and implemented across different nations.

1. Future Determinants: The Catalyst for Structural Transformation

The evolution of adult and continuing education will not be shaped by educational policy alone, but by the convergence of powerful external macro-trends. To make lifelong learning a resilient global framework, policies must proactively adapt to three inevitable future determinants:

• The Demands of the Twin Transitions (Digital & Green): The rapid acceleration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and automation has fundamentally altered the baseline of required human competencies. Concurrently, the global transition toward sustainability and climate resilience demands an aggressive green skilling agenda. Lifelong learning must therefore evolve beyond its historical role as a basic literacy or remedial "second-chance" path. It must become a dynamic platform for continuous upskilling, technological fluency, and global citizenship.
• Demographic Asymmetry: Southeast Asia is experiencing a deep demographic split. While nations like Thailand and Singapore have already transitioned into aged and hyper-aged societies, other regional neighbors still possess a youth dividend but lack the institutional capacity to maximize it. Future frameworks must be fluid enough to support both active aging/gerontological learning and agile workforce entry. This necessitates a shift toward an andragogically oriented, longevity-literate educational paradigm capable of bonding these diverse age cohorts together (Charungkaittikul & Henschke, 2024).
• The Risk of the Poly-Crisis and Widening Inequalities: Future economic shifts, public health crises, and environmental disruptions will disproportionately impact marginalized populations. If lifelong learning ecosystems are only accessible to those with existing digital and financial privilege, the global framework will inadvertently widen the socioeconomic divide rather than bridge it.

This critical vulnerability is explicitly underscored by the 2026 Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report, which warns that as the international community enters the final countdown toward the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, widening systemic gaps in access and equity threaten to leave the most vulnerable populations entirely behind (UNESCO, 2026). Without a deliberate, targeted focus on structural equity, global targets like SDG 4 risk becoming empty metrics rather than lived realities.

2. From Definition to Practice: The Challenge of Contextual Asymmetry

A core challenge in deploying lifelong learning as a global framework is the recognition that definitions, national policies, and implementation processes vary fundamentally from country to country. There is no "one-size-fits-all" model.

As established in regional cross-country research conducted in collaboration with the Institute for International Cooperation (DVV International) of the German Adult Education Association (Deutscher Volkshochschul-Verband e.V.) - the strategic approaches and structural readiness of Southeast Asian nations reveal a profound contextual asymmetry (Charungkaittikul, 2019). When we analyze the ten ASEAN nations through the lens of UNESCO’s lifelong learning ecosystem dimensions, this operational divergence becomes starkly apparent:

• Singapore treats lifelong learning as a highly institutionalized economic and civic infrastructure through its centralized SkillsFuture framework.
• Malaysia and the Philippines have advanced macro-policy frameworks and legislative acts, yet they frequently encounter complex challenges in decentralized execution and cross-sectoral governance.
• Thailand possesses a strong grassroots footprint through Community Learning Centres (CLCs) and a progressive National Education Plan but faces structural fragmentation in seamlessly connecting non-formal learning to formal credit banking systems. As rigorously analyzed in “An Overview of Concepts and Guidelines for Promoting Lifelong Learning in Thai Society” (Charungkaittikul, 2021), the core struggle within the Thai ecosystem is a historical policy gap that has created a lack of structural synergy. The foundational challenge lies in structurally reforming current non-formal spaces to elevate local wisdom across its agricultural, cultural, and socio-economic dimensions. (Charungkaittikul, 2021)
• Indonesia and Vietnam leverage massive digital momentum and localized "learning societies," yet they grapple with severe geographic equity gaps between hyper-developed urban centers and rural areas.
• Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Timor-Leste are structurally compelled to use non-formal education primarily as a remedial safety net for basic literacy and primary skills, rather than as a proactive lifelong ecosystem.

The 2026 GEM Report highlights this exact global challenge, noting that a profound policy-practice gap persists across low- and middle-income nations due to severe budgetary constraints, administrative overloads, and a lack of contextualized professional pathways (UNESCO, 2026). Borrowing global templates without deep local translation inevitably leads to policy stagnation. Because historical baselines, institutional maturity, and cultural contexts are fundamentally unequal, copying rigid frameworks without localization offers little sustainable progress.

3. The Imperative of Accurate Communication and Principled Implementation

Given these structural variations, international and regional stakeholders must pivot their strategies. Instead of enforcing rigid, standardized metrics that encourage compliance rather than genuine growth, we must prioritize the accurate, inspiring communication of core lifelong learning principles.

Misconceptions still abound: many administrative systems still mistakenly equate "lifelong learning" merely with formal schooling, certificates, or institutional attendance, trapping societies in a restrictive "Society of Schooling." To evolve into a true "Lifelong Learning Society," we must protect and advocate for three uncompromised principles rooted in the core philosophy and concepts of non-formal education (Charungkaittikul, 2021). Crucially, these principles align with the strategic guidelines formulated for transforming localized educational landscapes (Charungkaittikul, 2021):

• Inclusivity and Equity as a Human Right: Lifelong learning is a universal human right, not a market-driven luxury. The 2026 GEM Report emphasizes that true progress toward SDG 4 cannot be achieved without dismantling the structural barriers that restrict access for marginalized, rural, and non-formal learners (UNESCO, 2026).
• Permeability and Flexibility of Pathways: Formal, non-formal, and informal learning pathways must be structurally integrated through robust Credit Banking and Micro-credentials that validate real-world competencies regardless of where or how they were acquired. True implementation requires that non-formal learning pathways are structurally incorporated into the broader, formal schooling architecture rather than left isolated on the margins.
• Learner-Centered Andragogical Agility: Shifting away from rote memorization, educational delivery must focus on fostering critical thinking, adaptability, and self-regulated learning. Applying definitive andragogical concepts allows communities to transition from passive consumers of knowledge to agile, self-directed builders of a sustainable learning society (Charungkaittikul & Henschke, 2017).

Only when the core philosophy is accurately communicated and understood can local policymakers translate the global framework into authentic, effective, and context-specific action.

Conclusion

Ultimately, the success of lifelong learning as a global framework cannot be measured by the aesthetic appeal of policy documents, the number of certificates issued, or the speed of technological adoption. The final, definitive metric must be the quality of life of the people and the transformation of society.

Our collective goal must be to build an inclusive lifelong learning ecosystem in which learning functions as an organic, everyday part of life—empowering individuals with dignity, resilience, and agency while fostering a more equitable, peaceful, and sustainable world. As we look to the future, let us ensure that while we build the innovative outer skeleton of our educational systems, we never lose sight of the human heart at the center of our mission.

Lifelong learning is the ultimate global framework for human flourishing. As IACEHOF enters its fourth decade, my hope is that we continue to amplify regional voices from every corner of the globe. By honoring our history and boldly embracing the digital and ecological transitions ahead, we ensure that adult education and lifelong learning remain a vibrant, empowering force for generations to come.

About Author

Assoc. Prof. Suwithida Charungkaittikul, Ph.D. is a faculty member in the Department of Lifelong Education, Faculty of Education at Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. She serves as the President of the PIMA Network and is a member of the Board of Directors for the IACE Hall of Fame. Her work focuses on non-formal education philosophy, learning ecosystems, international policies in lifelong learning, and learning city/ society/ region development.

References

Charungkaittikul, S. (2021). Concepts and Guidelines for Enhancing Lifelong Learning in Thailand. Chulalongkorn Publishing Center Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.

Charungkaittikul, S. (2019). Strategies for developing a lifelong learning society. In U. Gartenschlaeger (Ed.), Rethinking adult learning and education – Asian perspectives (pp. 47–54). DVV International.

Charungkaittikul, S., & Henschke, J. A. (2024). Lifelong learning: An andragogical approach to education for the aging population. International Journal of Technology-Enhanced Education, 3(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJTEE.349130

Charungkaittikul, S., & Henschke, J. A. (2017). Applying andragogical concepts in creating a sustainable lifelong learning society. International Journal of Adult Vocational Education and Technology, 8(4), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijavet.2017100104

UNESCO. (2026). Global education monitoring report 2026: Access and equity, countdown to 2030. UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000397618

 

 

We invite Hall of Fame members and the global adult education community to share reflections, stories, and insights as part of this anniversary series.

IACEHOF 30th Anniversary Celebration 

The Hall of Fame is more than a recognition—it is a living record of the people and ideas that have shaped adult and continuing education globally

  

My Journey with the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities: Building Communities Through Lifelong Learning

 

  

By Arne Carlsen (HOF 2017)

When I became Director of the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in 2011, I was convinced that lifelong learning should extend far beyond schools and universities. Learning takes place in homes, workplaces, libraries, museums, community centers, and public spaces. If learning is truly lifelong, our cities must become environments where everyone has the opportunity to learn throughout every stage of life.

This belief shaped my work with the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities (GNLC), an initiative that places lifelong learning at the heart of sustainable urban development. The network encourages cities to see learning as a shared responsibility involving local governments, educational institutions, businesses, civil society, and citizens themselves.

One of the greatest privileges of my career was witnessing cities around the world embrace this vision. Despite their different cultures, languages, and circumstances, they shared a common understanding: communities flourish when learning opportunities are accessible to everyone, regardless of age or background.

The GNLC became far more than a network of municipalities. It evolved into a global community where cities exchange ideas, share successful practices, and learn from one another. A city addressing literacy challenges can benefit from another city's innovative community programs, while others draw inspiration from initiatives promoting digital inclusion, intergenerational learning, and active citizenship.

At UIL, we sought to provide both strategic direction and practical support. Together with colleagues and international partners, we developed guiding frameworks, organized international conferences, and encouraged peer learning among member cities. Rather than promoting a single model, we encouraged each city to build on its own strengths while working toward a shared goal: creating a culture of lifelong learning.

Throughout my travels, I met mayors, educators, and community leaders whose commitment was both inspiring and practical. Libraries became vibrant learning hubs, museums expanded their educational role, employers invested in workforce development, and volunteers strengthened literacy initiatives. These experiences confirmed that lifelong learning is not an abstract policy concept but a powerful means of improving people's lives and strengthening communities.

The Learning City movement also reinforced my belief that lifelong learning is essential for achieving sustainable development. Education supports not only individual growth but also better health, social inclusion, gender equality, employment, environmental responsibility, and democratic participation. Cities that invest in learning invest in their future resilience and prosperity.

One lesson stands out above all others: successful learning cities are built through partnerships. No single institution can create a learning society. Progress depends on collaboration among municipal authorities, educational institutions, cultural organizations, businesses, and community groups. When these partners work together, learning becomes woven into the fabric of everyday life.

Equally important is inclusion. A learning city must reach those who have traditionally had fewer educational opportunities, including older adults, migrants, refugees, people with disabilities, and those who left formal education early. Lifelong learning fulfills its promise only when it expands opportunities for everyone.

Looking back, I am proud that the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities has grown into a worldwide movement connecting more than 400 cities committed to lifelong learning. More importantly, it has fostered lasting partnerships and inspired local innovation across every region of the world.

Today, rapid technological advances, artificial intelligence, climate change, geopolitical and security challenges, demographic shifts, and growing inequalities make lifelong learning more important than ever. These challenges require citizens who continue learning throughout their lives and cities that actively support this lifelong process.

My hope is that the Learning City movement will continue to inspire future leaders to place learning, inclusion, and human dignity at the center of urban development. By doing so, cities will become not only more competitive and sustainable but also more inclusive, resilient, and humane. Lifelong learning remains one of the most valuable investments we can make in the future of our communities.

Join the Conversation

Every learning city has its own story, and every educator, policymaker, and community leader brings a unique perspective on what lifelong learning can achieve. What examples have you seen in your own community? What opportunities or challenges do you believe will shape the future of learning cities?

We invite you to share your experiences, ideas, and reflections in the comments below. By learning from one another, we continue the spirit of collaboration that has been at the heart of the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities from the very beginning.

References

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2021). OECD Skills Outlook 2021: Learning for Life. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/0ae365b4-en

UNESCO. (2015). Education 2030: Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). (2013). Key Features of Learning Cities. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). (2015). Guiding Documents for the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). (2017). Unlocking the Potential of Urban Communities: Case Studies of Twelve Learning Cities. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). (2019). UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities: Membership Brochure. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning.

UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). (2024). UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities. https://www.uil.unesco.org/en/learning-cities

United Nations. (2015). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations.

From Andragogy to Artificial Intelligence: Tracing the Evolution of Adult Education Through Scholarly Journals Published by AAACE

 

 

By Lilian H. Hill (HOF 2018)

 

In adult and continuing education, scholarly journals provide a unique lens through which to examine how ideas develop over time, revealing not only what educators and researchers have studied, but also whose voices have been amplified, whose perspectives have been overlooked, and how the field has responded to changing social realities. A review of publications in adult and continuing education journals demonstrates that the field has undergone significant intellectual transformation over the past several decades.

 

Looking Beyond Familiar Names

Introductory adult education texts in the U.S. foreground a relatively small group of influential scholars, including Eduard Lindeman, Malcolm Knowles, David Kolb, Jack Mezirow, Sharan Merriam, and Stephen Brookfield. While these individuals made foundational contributions to the field, relying on a handful of familiar citations creates an impression that adult education scholarship is static. Instead, adult education is a rich and evolving field shaped by hundreds of scholars, practitioners, and community leaders across the globe.

 

An illustration of this diversity is the International Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame, which over the past thirty years has recognized nearly 500 leaders from over 40 countries for their contributions to adult and continuing education. The Hall of Fame includes researchers, practitioners, policy leaders, and innovators whose work spans community development, literacy, workforce education, transformative learning, lifelong learning, higher education, and social justice. The work of the Hall of Fame is ongoing with a new inductees honored each year.

 

Hall of Fame members have contributed directly to the scholarly literature. Foundational scholars include Malcolm Knowles (1996), Phyllis Cunningham (1996), Jack Mezirow (2003), Sharan Merriam (2003), Thomas Sork (2008), Stephen Brookfield (2009), John Dirkx (2013), and Patricia Cranton (2014). They published influential work, helping shape major areas of inquiry including andragogy, transformative learning, critical reflection, adult development, and lifelong learning. The date in brackets that follows scholars’ names represents the year they were inducted. Induction tends to occur when scholars are well-established, and sometimes years later. For example, Eduard Lindeman was inducted posthumously in 2002, yet his well-known publication, The Meaning of Adult Education, was released in 1926.

 

Journals as Windows into the Field

Journals demonstrate how knowledge production changes over time. Academic journals reveal the questions that scholars considered important, theoretical frameworks that gained prominence, and social issues that influenced research. They reflect shifting priorities, emerging debates, and growing recognition of previously marginalized voices. By examining publication trends, it becomes possible to trace the evolution of adult education as both a scholarly discipline and a social practice. This blog post focuses on publications of the American Association of Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE): Adult Education Quarterly, Adult Learning, and Journal of Transformative Education.

 

 

Mid-Twentieth Century: Education for Democracy and Community Development

During the 1950s - 1970s, adult education scholars focused heavily on program development, community education, civic participation, and democratic engagement. Adult education was viewed as a practical endeavor that could strengthen communities and support social progress. Research emphasized effective teaching strategies for adult learners. Theories such as andragogy, experiential learning, and humanistic education gained prominence, reflecting a strong interest in understanding how adults learn and how educators could facilitate that learning more effectively. Broader social movements, including civil rights activism, labor organizing, and community development efforts, influenced the field. Adult education was closely connected to social purpose, citizenship, and collective improvement.

 

The 1980s and 1990s: Critical Reflection and Theory Development

The 1980s and 1990s marked a significant shift in adult education scholarship. Rather than focusing primarily on instructional methods, scholars began exploring deeper questions about power, inequality, and social structures. This era saw the emergence and expansion of transformative learning theory alongside growing influence from critical theory, feminist scholarship, and critical pedagogy. Researchers began asking important questions about who participates in adult education, who benefits whose knowledge is considered legitimate, and how learning experiences shape identity and power? The field moved beyond questions of how adults learn to examine why education matters and whom it serves. Adult education became increasingly concerned with issues of justice, equity, and social transformation.

 

The Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame inducted its first 78 scholars in 1996. The Hall had been in development for several years, and the induction recognized adult educators who were active in previous decades. Scholars who contributed to the literature who were inducted that year included Phyllis Cunningham, Cyril Houle, Alan Knox, and K. Patricia Cross. Authors inducted in the remainder of the decade include Peter Jarvis (1997), Myles Horton (1998), Donna Queeny (1998), and Dorothy Enderis (1998).

 

The Early 2000s: Globalization and Lifelong Learning

As globalization accelerated, adult education became increasingly international and interdisciplinary. Researchers explored cross-cultural perspectives and examined how global economic, political, and social changes influenced learning. Governments, international organizations, and educational institutions increasingly promoted lifelong learning as essential for workforce development, economic competitiveness, and adaptation to rapid social change.

 

At the same time, scholars debated competing visions of education. Was adult education primarily an economic tool designed to increase productivity and employability? Or was it a means of promoting social justice, civic engagement, and personal growth? This tension between economic and social purposes remains a defining feature of contemporary adult education discourse. Hall of Fame members who contributed to that debate included Ronald Cervero (2003), Stephen Brookfield (2009), Patricia Cranton (2014), John Dirkx (2018), and Laura Bierema (2022).

 

The 2010s: Equity, Identity, and Technology

During the 2010s, adult education scholarship increasingly focused on issues of equity, inclusion, identity, and culture. Researchers examined how race, gender, social class, disability, and other dimensions of identity influence educational experiences and outcomes. The field responded to major global challenges, including migration, economic instability, and public health crises. Greater attention was given to amplifying marginalized voices and understanding how systemic inequalities shape access to learning opportunities. Technology emerged as another major area of inquiry. Scholars investigated online learning, digital access, and the ways technology influences participation, engagement, and educational outcomes. Research increasingly blended theoretical analysis with practical applications, reflecting the growing need to address real-world challenges facing educators and learners. Hall of Fame Members active during this time included Stephen Brookfield (2009), Juanita Johnson-Bailey (2009), Elizabeth Tisdell (2014), John Dirkx (2018), Simone Conceição (2018), Paulette Isaac-Savage (2019), and Edward Taylor (2024).

 

The 2020s and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Challenges

The current decade is generating new questions for adult education scholars. Digital, media, and artificial intelligence literacy, and the ethical implications of emerging technologies have become prominent topics of discussion. Adult educators are learning to teach adults about addressing misinformation and disinformation, digital inequity, workforce disruption, and the changing nature of knowledge production. At the same time, foundational literacy skills remain important concerns. Ongoing focus on social justice, global interconnectedness, and lifelong learning continue to shape research and practice. Hall of Fame authors publishing in this decade include Chad Hoggan (2025), Lisa Baumgartner (2024), Lisa Merriweather (2024), and Laura Bierema (2022). There are more adult educators still to be recognized in this decade. Future scholarship will likely explore how artificial intelligence, data-driven systems, and evolving digital environments influence learning, teaching, and participation in society.

 

Lessons from the Evolution of Adult Education

Adult education has evolved from a largely practice-oriented field to one that is theoretically sophisticated, critically reflective, globally connected, and increasingly interdisciplinary. Throughout its history, the field has maintained an ongoing dialogue with society. Changes in scholarship have often mirrored broader social, political, economic, and technological developments. New ideas have emerged in response to changing contexts, while longstanding debates about purpose, access, equity, and power continue to resurface in new forms. The challenge for contemporary scholars is to engage with the broader and continually expanding body of literature that reflects the diversity, complexity, and global nature of adult learning and education.

 

Understanding this intellectual evolution helps educators and researchers situate their own work within a larger scholarly tradition. It highlights the diversity of voices that have contributed to the field and encourages engagement with both foundational theories and contemporary scholarship. Most importantly, the history of adult education reminds us that the field is not defined by a handful of influential thinkers. Rather, it is a living, evolving conversation shaped by generations of scholars, practitioners, and learners working to understand and improve the role of education in adult life.

 

The auto/biographical imagination and the shifting sands of adult learning

 

By Linden West (HOF 2020), Professor Emeritus

I want to draw, in this blog, on a lifetime’s passion for what feminist sociologist Liz Stanley called auto/biographical inquiry, and the myriad ways in which the stories people tell can be interpreted, including in dialogue with them. “Biographical” means the search to understand particular moments in the here and now, including education, in the context of a whole life. “Auto,” bringing the researcher’s presence and subjectivity to bear on what amounts to the deeply relational, intersubjective, often unconscious drama we call research. When two or more gather together, the struggle for openness, trust, and meaning in storytelling and interpretation begins.

The auto/biographical “turn” in adult education represented a reaction against superficial survey research on “why people learn”: boxes ticked on whether motivation was primarily personal or vocational. Forgetting, of course, that why we learn and desire a specific career can be deeply personal and familial. But then we have lived through times where vocational and economic motivation have been culturally valued, while the more personal and certainly liberal and expansive spirit once characterizing adult learning, in locations  like the United Kingdom and Scandinavia, has weakened. We once shared an idea of adult education as a laboratory for cultivating democratic learning, participatory citizenship, and inclusive, progressive politics, but this has dissipated, and education at all levels in a world of precarity is focused on “the economy, stupid!”

And the complexity of the human subjects at the heart of learning and research easily gets lost in the primacy of the quantitative gaze, the seductions of measurement, and evidence-based mantras. It was Max Weber who urged us towards understanding rather than simple measurement, but this aspiration can get sidelined in the worship of quantification. And although there are now many studies drawing on auto/biography, auto-ethnography, and qualitative perspectives, in the eyes of the powerful, governments and the academy, they really do not count. The loss of the human subject in social science and educational research remains a live issue if we really want to understand why people learn in depth and what this means on more of their own terms.

Doing auto/biographical research, drawing on the developing stories people tell, over time, demands care and attentiveness, and a relational, safe, transitional space for developing and interpreting stories. Attentiveness, respectfulness, and non-judgmentalism matter, alongside time, curiosity, and reflexivity towards what emerges. A giving of the researcher’s whole self to the process is one way of framing it: bodily awareness, spirit, mind, and an empathic imagination. And a quality of presence to help build trust and a shared interest in lives, most of all among those, maybe a majority, who feel themselves inconsequential. Auto/biography celebrates the ordinary, the mundane, the particular and the everyday: it is in the particular, in Umberto Echo’s famous phrase, that we find the universals of human struggle, vulnerability, lostness, desire, resistance, courage and the incarnation of new ways of seeing.

We then more easily appreciate the importance of love and generosity in a learning life, when that life has been overwhelmed by abuse. We appreciate the power of self- and other-recognition in reading a good novel, where we discover a character much like ourselves who keeps on keeping on against difficult odds, and we are able to introject some of their resilience. Processes of projection, identification, and introjection are at work in the complex relational ecology we call adult education. We might celebrate the apparently small gesture of a teacher in higher education, who intuitively knows the importance of calling someone by their name, and celebrating their stuttering contribution in a seminar. Small gestures are important and empowering in learning lives, when we listen to the stories people tell.

Of course, we require a living code of ethics – treading lightly because we can tread on dreams. The metaphor of Pandora’s Jar (which, in fact, is what it was) reminds us to be careful, remembering that research, even longitudinal research, offers no long-term supportive structure like psychotherapy. On the other hand, and most often the case, it is astonishing how research can be therapeutic, because someone listens, bears witness, and gives credence to what may have seemed inconsequential. Such understanding is a co-creation, requiring, care-fully and reflexively, the use of our own lives, at times, to illuminate those of others, and vice-versa. We may never have known the nightmare of forced migration, or a constant experience of humiliation and degradation at school. But every one of us, at some time or other, knows what it’s like to feel disdained and disregarded, and these intersubjective synergies can be drawn on to deepen, dialogically, our understanding of the other and self.

It helps to be part of a strong research community, to develop interpretation and avoid projecting onto others what really belongs to us. A community made up of other seekers, where truth and integrity matter, and everything is reflexively questioned in the company of generous colleagues. Communities like the European Society for Research on the Education of Adults Life History and Biography Research Network, which has involved diverse people working together from different traditions, ranging from highly abstract and empirically exhaustive traditions in the German-speaking world, to the more artistic, imaginative, relational, and eclectic epistemology of auto/biography in countries like Italy. Dialogue between these different ways of seeing matters.

Emphasis is often given to listening, stillness, empathy, curiosity, and non-judgmentalism, and careful recording and transcription of an encounter. There is space and time for reflection, shared comment, awareness of our own associations in what we hear, and feedback at all stages, especially when a study is longitudinal. The whole slowly becomes more than the sum of the parts in a dialogical, iterative, narrative space.  

A brief case study of the power and potential of auto/biography will help here. The story of someone called Mathew, a migrant, who fled a war zone, death within his family, and crossed dangerous seas. Eventually ending up in London, then taking an Access to Higher Education program at a local community college. Lost, lonely, and alienated as the noise of anti-migration campaigns and populist politicians invaded his psyche. But then two teachers took a particular interest when he stopped attending class. They liked Mathew and made contact to learn that he had been forced to report to a detention center more and more frequently as a way of keeping tabs on “dangerous people” like him. The teachers began a campaign to get him citizenship and to support him in the classroom. “Good parents they were to me,” as Mathew put it. He progressed to higher education, where his proficiency in four languages and cultural sensitivities enabled him to become an advocate for diverse others. Eventually, he worked in public health, where his languages and knowledge of different cultures, including the importance of spirituality in healing, came to matter.

I met him with a colleague who was also a migrant. She intuitively understood some of his struggles and later offered to help with his academic writing and listened to and reflected with him on his tendency to self-deprecate. Pushing the boundaries of research may be into a kind of counseling, some might say. I’m not sure, but Mathew deeply valued his time with us and loved engaging in thinking about his experiences. Later, much later, I used Mathew as a case study of migration and how this touched deep and complicated aspects of my own family history. A hotel housing migrants was the target in 2025 of violent protests in the struggling “post-industrial” city where I was born. I came to think of my own great-grandfather, John West, who fled Ireland in 1842 during the Great Famine. He lived about 200 meters from where the protest took place. Family histories overlap across time, and empathy is strengthened through a deeper appreciation of what migration truly entails. And the power of the auto/biographical imagination in research.

I was helped by an ESREA Life History and Biography Network Writing Retreat in Liguria, Italy, in 2025. Freema Elbaz-Luwisch, Emeritus Professor at Haifa University, led a workshop on dancing with ancestors, in her case, two grandmothers who died tragically young. Her father’s mother died of diabetes in Vienna in 1909. Her mother’s mother - born in what was then Russia, now Ukraine – in a time and place where anti-Semitism could be virulent, and life lived on a perpetual cultural edge.  But they were alive and young in the imaginative dance in a church on a sunny Italian Spring Day. An extraordinary moment, where we all joined in and were encouraged to connect with our own ancestors. Dancing in a place called once upon a time and reimagining lives trans-generationally. I was moved to pen a letter from John, my great-grandad, to me. A letter on the trials he went through – in a kind of narrative imagination – including the intense racism he experienced in mid-Victorian Britain. He never gave his place of birth on his marriage certificate, just the country of Ireland, and he was reluctant to provide more detail, given the ubiquitous racist disdain for all things Irish. He just wanted to get it over, he wrote. Narrative rather than narrower historical truth, but no less important for that.

Whatever, auto/biography represents a fundamental methodological and imaginative challenge to the conventional scientific idea of keeping messy subjectivity and intersubjectivity at bay, because it gets in the way of “science.” Such scienticism, as we might call it, risks narrowing our understanding of learners and learning, recognition, human motivation, and the relational, intersubjective dynamics of truly transformative learning. It constrains our understanding of how new ways of seeing and human agency, lifewide as well as lifelong, get forged between people, and with the symbolic world. 

 

As we celebrate 30 years of the Hall of Fame, what experiences, relationships, or moments in your professional journey have most shaped your contribution to adult and continuing education, and what lessons would you like to pass on to future generations? We invite Hall of Fame members and the global adult education community to share reflections, stories, and insights as part of this anniversary series.

IACEHOF 30th Anniversary Celebration 

The Hall of Fame is more than a recognition—it is a living record of the people and ideas that have shaped adult and continuing education globally

 

 

What China’s Workforce Challenge Can Teach Us About Talent Development

 

By William J. Rothwell (HOF 2023) 

 

When organizations expand globally, leaders often assume that technology transfer is mostly about systems, machines, and processes. But one of the most difficult forms of technology transfer is not technical at all. It is human.

A case study from China involving Motorola University and workforce learning initiatives dating back to the early part of this century illustrates a challenge that remains highly relevant today: organizations often underestimate the importance of transferring “soft skills technology” alongside technical expertise. The lessons from that effort have important implications not only for multinational corporations but also for organizations implementing artificial intelligence and other transformative technologies. In the case, an American professor—William Rothwell—wrote 10 graduate courses on Talent Development and delivered them by himself at Beijing University and Nankai University over an 18-month period in 1999 and 2000. The project costs were underwritten by 32 multinational companies, with Motorola leading the group. As part of the project, 4 Chinese professors (2 from each university) were given free seats to attend the event so they could learn how to teach the courses. All course materials prepared by Professor Rothwell were provided to the professors for use in teaching the 10 graduate courses at their universities going forward. It was essentially an effort to launch a state-of-the-art Talent Development Master’s degree program at 2 Chinese universities. Sixty-nine students participated from the 2 universities. Most were full-time students in MBA programs, but a few were selected high-potential staff from Motorola and other multinational companies.

The Real Challenge Was Never Just Technology

In the 1990s, multinational corporations operating in China faced a significant problem. They could find engineers and technical specialists, but they struggled to find professionals trained in workplace learning and performance (WLP), instructional design, training, and human resource development.

At the time, China had limited university infrastructure dedicated to these fields. As a result, companies had only a few options:

• Recruit talent away from competitors
• Train staff internally from scratch
• Hire Chinese nationals educated abroad
• Help build a local educational infrastructure

The fourth option was the most sustainable, but also the most difficult. It required patience, collaboration, and long-term thinking. In many ways, it challenged the short-term business mentality that dominates many organizations.

This issue is remarkably similar to what organizations face today with artificial intelligence (AI). Companies frequently invest heavily in AI systems while neglecting the human systems needed to support them. The result is predictable: impressive technology with disappointing organizational outcomes.

Why Soft Skills Matter More Than Ever

The China initiative recognized an important truth: technical systems succeed only when human systems evolve alongside them.

Motorola University and 31 other multinational companies working in China approached the problem strategically. They worked with Chinese universities, multinational training networks, and corporate leaders to develop awareness of the emerging field of workplace learning and performance. The effort was not merely educational; it was cultural.

The initiative followed six major steps:

1. Building awareness
2. Meeting immediate workforce needs
3. Delivering advanced certificates
4. Offering university-based certificate programs
5. Creating internships
6. Assessing long-term results

Motorola worked with Penn State University, Beijing University, and Nankai University to implement this change effort. This gradual approach acknowledged that workforce transformation cannot occur overnight. Sustainable change requires capability building at multiple levels simultaneously.

That lesson is particularly important now. Organizations implementing AI often focus almost entirely on the technology itself. They purchase software, automate workflows, and redesign systems. But they fail to consider how the introduction of new technology will change how people work together to achieve results, resulting in the well-known “the productivity paradox.”

Technology changes processes. But people determine whether those processes improve performance. Failing to consider the human side of the enterprise almost always leads to a failed change effort.

The Productivity Paradox Reappears

Economists and management scholars have long discussed the “productivity paradox,” the phenomenon in which organizations invest heavily in new technologies without achieving proportional gains in productivity.

One reason is simple: organizations frequently fail to redesign work around the technology.

The case of China demonstrates the opposite approach. Instead of merely importing training concepts, the project invested in local capability, cultural adaptation, and institutional development. It recognized that successful transfer requires more than technical replication. It requires integration into the social and organizational fabric of the workforce.

Today, many AI implementations repeat the same mistakes organizations made during earlier waves of technological change. Leaders assume that software adoption automatically creates value. Value emerges only when technology, leadership, structure, culture, and workforce capability align.

Without that alignment, organizations experience confusion rather than transformation. The result is often disappointed management expectations.

Building Capacity Instead of Dependency

One insightful aspect of the China initiative was its emphasis on localization.

Rather than depending indefinitely on expatriates or imported expertise, the strategy focused on developing local professionals who could sustain and expand the capability over time. This created long-term organizational resilience.

That principle matters enormously today.

Organizations should avoid creating permanent dependency on outside AI consultants or technology vendors. Instead, they should focus on developing internal capability:

• Managers who understand how AI changes workflows
• Employees who can work effectively alongside intelligent systems
• HR professionals who can redesign jobs and competencies
• Learning leaders who can support continuous adaptation

In other words, organizations must build learning ecosystems, not merely deploy tools. In the China case, the multinationals set out to work with Penn State to encourage local universities to establish and launch a new graduate program in Talent Development—sometimes called Training and Development.

Cultural Translation Is Essential

Another key insight from the China experience was the importance of cultural translation.

Technology transfer is never purely technical because all workplaces operate within cultural systems. Practices that work in one national or organizational culture may fail in another unless adapted thoughtfully.

The project recognized the importance of local facilitators, local partnerships, and sensitivity to Chinese educational and organizational traditions. That helped create trust and credibility.

Modern AI initiatives require similar sensitivity. Departments within the same organization may have different norms, fears, communication styles, and attitudes toward automation. Leaders who ignore these cultural realities often encounter resistance, disengagement, or passive noncompliance.

Successful transformation requires dialogue, participation, and trust-building.

Leadership Must Think Long-Term

Perhaps the most important lesson from the case is that transformational talent development requires long-term leadership commitment.

Short-term thinking often undermines strategic capability building. Executives may prioritize quarterly metrics over investments whose benefits emerge gradually. But sustainable organizational capability rarely develops quickly.

The China initiative invested in partnerships, education, and infrastructure because leaders understood that workforce capability is a strategic asset.

The same is true for AI transformation today.

Organizations that focus only on rapid automation may achieve temporary efficiencies while damaging long-term adaptability. By contrast, organizations that invest in workforce development, learning systems, and organizational alignment are more likely to achieve enduring success.

Final Thoughts

The Chinese workforce case is not simply a historical story about multinational business expansion. It is a reminder that organizational transformation is fundamentally human.

Technology alone does not create a competitive advantage. Human capability, organizational learning, and cultural adaptation determine whether technology produces meaningful results.

As organizations race to implement AI and other advanced technologies, leaders would do well to remember the lesson demonstrated decades ago in China: the most important technology transfer may be the transfer of knowledge, relationships, learning systems, and leadership practices that help people succeed together.

Organizations that integrate the human and technical sides will be the ones most likely to thrive in the future.

This blog post is a condensed and adapted version of a longer, full-length case study. Thoughts from other Hall of Fame members will be appreciated as the Hall celebrates its 30th anniversary and looks forward to how our field continues to adapt to AI and other changes in our professional environment.

 

References  

Reference

Yan, X., & Rothwell, W. (2006). Motorola University: Transferring skills through strategic alliance. In Harkins, P., Giber, D., Sobol, M., Tarquinio, M., & Carter, L. (Eds), Leading the global workforce: Best practices from Linkage, Inc. (pp. 171-182). Jossey-Bass.

 

 

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About the Author

William J. Rothwell (HOF 2023) is Distinguished Professor Emeritus and Academy Professor at Penn State University, University Park. He is an author and an internationally recognized expert in workforce development, leadership, human resource development, and organizational change. He has written and edited numerous books on talent management, succession planning, leadership development, and workplace learning. His work has influenced organizations and educational institutions worldwide through research, consulting, and executive education initiatives. He can be reached by email at wjr9@psu.edu or by phone at 814-441-4087.